Aspects of Corporate Financial Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

Aspects of Corporate Financial Policy - Essay Example The view that dividend does not matter as far as wealth maximization is concerned has its support in the article by Miller (n.d.) entitled â€Å" Do Dividends Really Matter?† In said paper, Miller explained his position about the few aspects of corporate financial policy where academics and practitioners differ on what really is the effect of dividend policy on stock price. He is aware that the academic consensus that dividends do not matter much and that the market should not be expected to increase prices because of â€Å"generous† dividend policies. He, however, admits that generous dividends may cause share to sell lower due to tax penalties or higher taxes on dividends as against capital gains. On the other hand, he also knows of the continued claims from corporate officials and investment bankers about the big influence of dividend on market prices because of cited instance where there were jumps in price after some announcements of resumption of regular dividends (Miller, n.d.).One may easily notice what caused the world of academicians to differ from those of practitioners. It may be asserted the academicians seem to view things from a long-term point of view while practitioners will look at it at the immediate reaction from the market which is rather a short-term point of view. This must be so since academicians would most probably believe in the result of researchers than a knee-jerk reaction to what happens in a certain stock market. Practitioners, in turn, would like to be guided by academicians but not necessarily. Indeed Miller saw what practitioners perceived as â€Å"an optical illusion† where he used as an example with his students a stick in the water to illustrate his point. He explained that of one who uses his or her eyes and look at the stick in the water, it appears bent yet if one feels it with his or her finger or if one pulls it out of the water one will realize that the stick is not really bent. It is just the loo ks of it that is bent.

Anorexia Nervosa Essay Example for Free

Anorexia Nervosa Essay I. Introduction Anorexia nervosa has received a great deal of attention in the popular media in recent years. This disorder is listed under the category of disorders of childhood or adolescence in DSM-III. Anorexia consists of extreme weight loss due to a reduction in eating. It occurs most frequently in female adolescents; only about 1 in 10 people with anorexia are male. The disorder is believed to be rate, but one study found an incidence of 1 case out of 200 adolescent girls. Anorexia begins when the adolescent starts to diet. The person often has major problems in self-esteem and concerns about physical appearance. Weight reduction may be one way for the person to feel in control of her or his behavior, and to improve self-esteem ( Lager, 2003).   However, for anorexics, dieting gets out of hand. They develop an unreasonable fear of eating, and often suppress hunger by engaging in repetitive activity such as frequent exercising. When anorexics must eat because others (e.g., parent) demand it, they often will induce vomiting after meals to get rid of the food ingested. Even though the anorexic begins to waste away and develops such physical problems as cessation of menstruation (for girls), constipation, and imbalances in body chemistry, she or he is often unconcerned about the life-threatening aspect of the behavior (Darby, 2001). Anorexics continue to perceive themselves as heavier that they really are, and some continue to avoid eating until they die from starvation. Death may occur in up to 15 percent of anorexics. This paper intent to: (1) understand what anorexia nervosa really means and its effects; (2) know the measures for managing anorexia; (3) be aware of the use of pharmacologic agents to stimulate appetite in the terminally ill and; (4) be familiar of the factors influencing nutritional status in varied situations. II. Background Anorexia Nervosa is a psychiatric disorder characterized by an aversion to food and a resulting extreme loss of weight. It is most common in teenage girls and young women. The victims, although not necessarily overweight, become obsessed with a fear of obesity and deliberately subject themselves to a starvation diet (see â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa Overview.† eMedicineHeath. Emergency Care + Consumer Health). The resulting malnutrition typically leads to constipation, vomiting, low body temperature, low blood pressure, and amenorrhea (cessation of menstruation). Victims can lose up to 25 percent of their body weight and, if untreated, may die. Treatment for anorexia consists of hospitalization along with psychotherapy and counseling. Victims are either fed intravenously or are placed on a high-calorie, high-protein diet supplemented by large doses of vitamins. A. What are an anorexia nervosa and its effects? At the other end of the spectrum from obesity is anorexia nervosa, an eating disorder associated with self-imposed starvation. The already underweight person continues to restrict food intake, often to the point where death is a genuine concern. One of the most distinguishing traits of people who have anorexia nervosa is that they do not see themselves as thin (Halmi, 2004). When they look in a mirror, they actually perceive themselves to be overweight or gaining weight. In the latter case they may go out and jog 5 miles or stay up all night jumping jacks. The resulting weight loss and attendant physical stress often lead to an absence of menstruation among females, and the person may look pallid and gaunt. III. Discussion Anorexia is a puzzling disorder. Why would an otherwise healthy young person starve to death? Although some explanations of anorexia have focused on biological causes (a possible malfunction of the hypothalamus which could lead to a lack of desire for food), current views focus on problems in the family which may lead to anorexic behavior. The parents of anorexic adolescents are often very controlling and attempt to order their children’s lives to a greater extent than do parents of non-anorexics. Furthermore, the families are often filled with conflict between family members. Anorexic behavior may be an extreme, distorted attempt by the adolescent to control at least one aspect of her or his own behavior. Treatment of anorexia usually involves several different emphases. If the weight loss is life threatening, medical intervention (e.g., intravenous feeding) is necessary. The reinstitution of eating behavior and achieved using behavioral approaches; however, these gains are often short-lived. Most treatment programs report success rates as high as 86 percent. However, anorexia still results in death for some individuals. A. Measures for managing Anorexia Anorexia is a common problem in the seriously ill. The profound changes in the patient’s appearance and his or her concomitant lack of interest in the socially important rituals of mealtime are particularly disturbing to families. The approach to the problem varies depending on the patient’s stage of illness, level of disability associated with the illness, and desires. Although causes of anorexia may be controlled for a period of time; progressive anorexia is an expected and natural part of the dying process. Anorexia may be related to or exacerbated by situational variables (eg, the ability to have meals with the family versus eating alone in the â€Å"sick room†), progression of the disease, treatment for the disease, or psychological distress. The patient and family should be instructed in strategies to manage the variables associated with anorexia. B. Measures for Managing Anorexia There are many ways in how to manage the patient who suffers from anorexia nervosa and it is divided into two measures, the medical interventions and patient and family tips. a) Medical Interventions The medical group initiates measures to ensure adequate dietary intake without adding stress to the patient at mealtimes and assess the impact of medications (eg,chemotherapy, antiretroviral) or other therapies (radiation therapy, dialysis)that are being used to treat the underlying illness. It administers and monitors effects of prescribed treatment for nausea, vomiting, and delayed gastric emptying and encourages patient to eat when effects of medications have subsided and assess and modify environment to eliminate unpleasant odors and other factors that cause nausea, vomiting, and anorexia. Remove items that may reduce appetite (soiled tissues, bedpans, emesis basins, clutter). This medical group assesses and manages anxiety and depression to the extent possible (see â€Å"Anorexia Nervosa: Treatment.† Mental Health. MayoClinic.com). It also assesses for constipation and/or intestinal obstruction and prevents and manages constipation on an ongoing basis, even when the patient’s intake is minimal. Furthermore, it provides frequent mouth care, particularly following nourishment, ensure that dentures are properly taken care, and administer and monitor effects of topical systematic for oropharyngeal pain. b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Patient and Family Teaching Tips The family reduces the focus on â€Å"balanced† meals; offer the same food as often as the patient desires it and increase the nutritional value of meals. For example, add dry milk powder to milk, and use this fortified milk to prepare cream soups, milkshakes, and gravies. Allow and encourage the patient to eat when hungry, regardless of usual meal times. Eliminate or reduce noxious cooking odors, pet odors, or other odors that may precipitate nausea, vomiting, or anorexia and keep patient’s environment clean, uncluttered and comfortable (Halmi, 2004). Make mealtime a shared experience away from the â€Å"sick† room whenever possible. Reduce stress at mealtimes. Avoid confrontations about the amount of food consumed. Reduce or eliminate routine weighing of the patient. Encourage patient to eat in a sitting position; elevate the head of the patient’s bed. The family plan meals (food selection and portion size) that the patient desires. Provide small frequent meals if they are easier for patient to eat. Encourage adequate fluid intake, dietary fiber, and use of bowel program to prevent constipation (Wrede-Seamn, 1999). C. Use of pharmacologic agents to stimulate appetite in the terminally ill A number of pharmacologic agents are commonly used to stimulate appetite in anorectic patients. Commonly used medications for appetite stimulation include dexamethasone (Decadron), cyproheptadine (Periactin), megestrol acetate (Megace), and dronabinol (Marinol). Dexamethasone initially increases appetite and may provide short-term weight gain in some patients. However, therapy may need to be discontinued in the patient with a longer life expectancy, as after 3 to 4 weeks corticosteroids interfere with the synthesis of muscle protein. Cyproheptadine may be used when corticosteroids are contraindicated, such as when the patient is diabetic. It promotes mild appetite increase but no appreciable weight gain. Megestrol acetate produces temporary weight gain of primarily fatty tissue, with little effect on protein balance. Because of the time required to see any effect from this agent, therapy should not be initiated if life expectancy is less than 30 days. Finally, dronabinol is not as effective as the other agents for appetite stimulation in most patients. Although the use of these agents may cause temporary weight gain, their use is not associated with an increase in lean body mass in the terminally ill. Therapy should be tapered or discontinued after 4 to 8 weeks if there is no response (Wrede-Seamn, 1999). D. Factors Influencing Nutritional Status in varied Situations. One sensitive indicator of the body’s gain or loss of protein is its nitrogen balance. An adult is said to be nitrogen equilibrium when the nitrogen intake (from food) equals the nitrogen output (in urine, feces, and perspiration); it is a sign of health. A positive nitrogen balance exists when nitrogen intake exceeds nitrogen output and indicates tissue growth, such as occurs during pregnancy, childhood, recovery from surgery, and rebuilding of wasted tissue. Negative nitrogen balance indicates that tissue is breaking down faster than it is being replaced. In the absence of an adequate intake of protein, the body converts protein to glucose for energy. This can occur with fever, starvation, surgery, burns, and debilitating diseases. Each gram of nitrogen loss in excess of intake represents the depletion of 6.25 g of protein or 25 g of muscle tissue. Therefore, a negative nitrogen balance of 10g/day for 10 days could mean the wasting of 2.5 kg (5.5 lb) of muscle tissue as it i s converted to glucose for energy. When conditions that result in negative nitrogen balance are coupled with anorexia (loss of appetite), they can lead to malnutrition. IV. Conclusion In conclusion, the prevailing belief among clinical psychologists has been that anorexia arises out of an unstable self-concept. Thus, the commitment to diet and weight control is seen as an attempt to establish a firm sense of identity (Bhanji, 1999). In addition, there is the possibility that this illness, which in about 85 percent of cases occurs in adolescent females, indicates a rejection of traditional feminine roles. Even career patterns play a role. In certain occupations where there is a premium on being thin—for example, ballet dancing—the incidence of clinical anorexia may be great as 50 percent. Further, it has been suggested that malfunctioning neurons in the hypothalamus may alter the metabolism and feeding patterns of people with anorexia nervosa (Leibowitz 2003).   At present, however, the empirical support for underlying neurological disturbances is scant (Logue, 1999).

Indian Music Essays -- Music History Musical Arts Essays India

Indian Music The music of India is one of the oldest unspoken musical traditions in the world. The basis of for Indian music is â€Å"sangeet.† Sangeet is a combination of three art forms: vocal music, instrumental music (Indian music). Indian music is base upon seven modes (scales). It is probably no coincidence that Greek music is also base upon seven modes. Furthermore, the Indian scales follow the same process of modulation (murchana) that was found in ancient Greek music. Since Greece is also Indo-European, this is another piece of evidence for the Indo-European connection (Dance and music of India). The vocal tradition is especially strong in Indian music. It is understood that the song is probably the most ancient form of music. Vocal music occupies a considerable part of Natya Shastra (Indian music). The samaveda is the oldest musical text in India. Most of the classical songs of north India are devotional in nature, but there are few genres which are especially oriented toward religion. Most notable is the bhajan, dhun or kirtan for Hindus, the kawali (qawali) for Muslims, and the shabad for Sikhs (Indian music). Not all the music is serious for there are also many popular genres. The gazal is one style, which is known for it rich poetic, and romantic content. The Hindi geet which is basically just a song and undoubtedly the most popular is the film song (Indian music). There are also a few genres which are oriented specifically toward musical education. The most notable example is a genre called lakshan geet. In this style the words of the song actually describe the rag whic h is being performed (Indian music). India also has a rich tradition of folk music. These will vary from region to region. Instrumental music occupies an important position in Indian music. It is one of the threefold aspects of sangeet and has a very ancient history. Instrumental music is known as vadhya sangeet (India, dance and music). Over the years they have become formalized into four major instrumental styles known as: alap, jor, gat and jhala (India, dance and music). The alap is a slow rhythm less elaboration upon the rag. The jor is a section that has rhythm but no developed rhythmic cycle (i.e., tal). The gat is the fully developed piece, while the jhala is a fast rhythmic interplay between the drone strings and the main playing strings (Indian music). The... ...e plucked with a wire finger plectrum called mizrab. There are also a series of sympathetic strings lying under the frets. These strings are almost never played but they vibrate whenever the corresponding note is sounded. The frets are metal rods, which have been bent into crescents. The main resonator is usually made of a gourd and there is sometimes an additional resonator attached to the neck (Indian music). Another famous music instrument is tabla. Tabla is a pair of drums. It consists of a small right hand drum called dayan and a larger metal one called bayan. The tabla has an interesting construction. The dayan (right hand drum) is almost always made of wood. The diameter at the membrane may run from just under five inches to over six inches. The bayan (left hand drum) may be made of iron, aluminium, copper, steel, or clay; yet brass with a nickel or chrome plate is the most common material. Undoubtedly the most striking characteristic of the tabla is the large black spot o n each of the playing surfaces. These black spots are a mixture of gum, soot, and iron filings. Their function is to create the bell-like timbre that is characteristic of the instrument. (Carnatic music).

Coffee: Bad for Sleep

Sleep is very important to human beings especially because it allows both our minds and body to rest. It sorts out and arranges our memory and it is necessary for our body to function well. In fact about 40% of a person’s day is allocated to sleep throughout adolescence. However, adolescents who are people aged 12 to 18 years need 9 hours of sleep but on average most teens get 7 hours only (Mindell and Owens 30). A variety of factors contributes to the tendency of staying up late among adolescents this includes academic life, social life, and electronic media such as computers, televisions and cellphones.Adolescents particularly college students nowadays are most likely to stay up late because of homework or next day’s long exam. In the case of the Computer Science Sophomore Students of the University of the Philippines, generating codes for machine problems and laboratories keeps them stay up all night thus getting less sleep. To keep them going, some drink a cup of co ffee to avoid drowsiness. Coffee contains caffeine which serves as a stimulant. It keeps one stay awake but it disrupts sleep.That is why to avoid sleeping difficulties; it is recommended that coffee should not be taken within four to six hours before bedtime. Gasapo 2 Coffee is a beverage which contains caffeine-a widely used stimulant. Caffeine can indeed bring mental alertness but disturbs sleep. In a recent interview of selected UP Computer Science students, some complain that after coffee consumption they had a hard time falling asleep. Furthermore, they said that they usually wake up in the middle of the night and have trouble falling back to sleep.Lynne Lamberg, author of the Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Drugs: Drugs and Sleep said that†the need to sleep is an organizing force for living creatures† (21). The importance of sleep to one’s health is often overlooked by many people; furthermore not getting enough sleep could greatly affect every aspect of our h ealth, thinking and behavior. Generally, every aspect of one’s physical, emotional, cognitive and social development is affected by sleep (Mindell and Owens 6).However, life’s demands on teens as well as their competing priorities such as their social and academic lives often lead them to sleep deprivation. Most adolescents take a cup of coffee to avoid drowsiness and to stay alert during the night. In fact during adolescence, the initial exposure to caffeine takes place (Wagman 213). This is usually in the form of coffee and other caffeinated drinks such as soda and tea. Sheryl Laudito, in her article Staying Healthy with a Cup of Coffee said that â€Å"Coffee is a social binder, a warmer of tongues, a soberer of minds and a stimulant of wit† (3).This is a possible reason why people Gasapo 3 are more inclined to drinking coffee than any other beverage. As author of The Encyclopedia of Psychoactive Drugs: Caffeine- the Most Popular Stimulant, Dr. Gilbert Richard notes that findings of a recent study showed that coffee drinkers prefer coffee because of the following reasons: It gives one a feeling of well-being; It calms; It orients and helps one think; It makes one less irritable; It gets one going and wakes one up. These are also the same reasons for those coffee drinkers from the interview conducted.The following could also be possible reasons why more people are inclined to drinking coffee these are as follows: inherited coffee drinking habits, and influence of fast-paced lifestyle and work (Placido B3). Coffee, as defined by Stunning in Encyclopedia Americana, is the â€Å"seeds or beans of any of a group of tropical evergreen shrubs of the genus caffea, in the Madder family (Rubiaceae)†. Even though large quantities of coffee are used in flavors and extracts, coffee in the form of beverage is mostly consumed (187). The major component found in coffee is caffeine.It is found naturally in coffee and tea as well as in carbonated b everages and medications (Wagman 213). Caffeine has a lot of effects to human health, it is widely used as a stimulant and many people especially those who stay up late and work at night depend on coffee. In order to stay alert, people rely mostly on coffee (Reyes E1). Gasapo 4 According to a psychologist and caffeine investigator Harris Lieberman, â€Å"Coffee improves alertness and reaction time in people, whether they’re habitual consumers of coffee or not† (qtd. in Reyes E1).People like to drink coffee because they know that the chemical caffeine which is found in coffee prevents them from getting drowsy and helps them gain alertness and improve their reaction time. In addition, studies show that caffeine consumption could further improve reading speed, performance in mathematical as well as verbal tests and generally increase intellectual capacity (Reyes B3). Indeed, drinking coffee could provide mental alertness and could help one’s mental functions to wor k well. However as a consequence of staying awake and alert all night, sleep is compromised.People will have a hard time falling asleep, would wake up during the night and would get less sleep than what their body requires. In the conducted interview, many complained that they had difficulties waking up in the morning; have headaches; feel sleepy during the day and would usually doze off in class. â€Å"Coffee nerves† are developed from too much caffeine consumption. It is usually characterized by trembling, nervousness, muscle tension, irritability, headaches, disorientation and most probably insomnia (Reyes B3). â€Å"No sleep† is the literal meaning the term insomnia.It is now used to define a condition where people tend to have trouble falling or staying asleep, and not being able to function as Gasapo 5 usual the next day as a consequence (Lamberg 25). Based on the indications mentioned above, the coffee drinkers from the group of sophomore Computer Science studen ts of UPV from the interview conducted experience insomnia. This is mainly due to their intake of coffee few hours before going to bed. According to caffeine expert Roland Griffiths, people tend to report increased alertness and energy after consuming anywhere from 20 to 200 mg of caffeine (qtd. n Reyes E1).A cup of coffee contains about 50 mg of caffeine. Caffeine being a mild stimulant is used as a psychoactive drug worldwide. Prolonged times of falling asleep and awakening during the night are some effects of caffeine when taken near bedtime. This is because caffeine could remain for several hours and continue to have stimulating effect in the bloodstream (Lamberg 30). The peak of caffeine level in our body is one hour after consumption. In three to seven hours later, only more than one half of the ingested caffeine is broken down and considered inactive (Reyes M7).This is the reason why it is difficult to fall asleep because by the time you are about to sleep after gaining menta l alertness and wakefulness during the night, caffeine would still be present in the bloodstream and would still continue its stimulating effect for as long as seven hours after the time it was consumed. Moreover, Tim Roehrs, a director of research at the Sleep Disorder Center of the Henry Ford Hospital in Detroit explained that caffeine interferes with Gasapo 6 adenosine, the brain’s sleep regulator (qtd. n Reyes E1). Caffeine’s major effect, insomnia or having difficulty falling asleep has a very serious impact to one’s health. If sleep is lesser than what the body requires, it will not be able to function well and accordingly. As adolescents we must be aware of the real price that we pay for not getting enough sleep. Consider the costs such as depression, poor grades, poor school performance, mood issues and many more. Sleep deprivation affects the way we think and the way we make decisions when we are stressed emotionally.Being unable to perform well in clas s and having low attention span and less interest to the lesson are manifested by the sleep deprived sophomore Computer Science students. According to Owens and Mindel, research shows that the skills most compromised by loss of sleep are the skills for organization and time management, the skill to multitask, prioritize, sort through a lot of information accurately, and the skill to think creatively (229). If someone is sleep deprived or experiences insomnia, he or she may have a difficult time waking up in the morning.Sleep deprivation would eventually cause higher incidences of tardiness, increased rates of absenteeism to catch up on sleep, and if these incidences continue, there will obviously be a higher tendency of dropout rates. Attitude and motivation may Gasapo 7 also suffer if a student is sleep deprived. Studies show that well rested students are more responsive to teachers and would participate well in class compared to sleepier ones (Owens, Mindel 230). Behavior may also be affected if a person is sleep deprived. Frustration tolerance becomes lower as well as emotional control.Moreover, sleep deprived teens may be poor rested and overtired and would not be able to cope with problems around them, moodiness and irritability may also be an effect of not getting the enough sleep that your body actually requires. Table 1 shows the effects of lack of sleep according to Dr. Owens and Mindell (28). Lack of Sleep| Lack of sleep affects mood. A sleepy child is more: * irritable * cranky * moody * whiny| Lack of sleep affects learning.A sleepy child has * a shorter attention span * difficulty focusing * a harder time remembering things * difficulty solving problems. Lack of sleep affects behavior: A sleepy person is more likely to: * misbehave * be aggressive * be hyperactive * be uncooperative. | lack of sleep affects health in that it: * lowers immune function( a child is more likely to get colds) * increase accidental injuries * affect growth hormone secre tion| Gasapo 8 An adolescents’ life especially as a student is very demanding. They have competing priorities which includes school and social demands. In case of the sophomore Computer Science students of UPV, examples of these demands are finishing machine problems, after-school jobs and social activities as well.These are the reasons why they stay up late. Coffee, the most available stimulant is a big help for these students to achieve mental alertness and wakefulness. Coffee may come in different forms wherein students would enjoy drinking them depending on their preference. But whatever form it is, aside from decaffeinated ones, coffee still contains caffeine. Although caffeine may be effective for mental functions, it can greatly disturb sleep. So if one desires to drink coffee in order to achieve wakefulness and mental alertness at night without compromising sleep, coffee should be consumed four to six hours before bedtime.Restricting oneself to two cups of coffee a da y can already give the maximum benefits of alertness by having one cup first in the morning and the other in the midafternoon (Lamberg 33). If one considers drinking coffee to be very essential and could boost up performance, there is no reason to deprive oneself of its benefits. Just take into consideration that to avoid putting one’s health at risk, coffee should be taken at a considerable amount and at the right time.

Ottoman Architecture: A Travel Through Time Essay

The Ottomans are among the great builders in history. Their architecture is basically focused on the building of mosques which were not only meant for religious purposes but also to undertake social functions. Among the architects who built a name in the Ottoman empire is Sinan, the imperial architect. As the head architect of the Ottoman empire during Sultan Suleyman’s reign, he designed mosques that exemplified beauty and grace. He derived his inspiration from the Byzantine Empire’s Hagia Sophia. The paper contains a discussion of the development of Ottoman architecture. It traces the roots of the Ottoman craft from Iznik tiles and moves on to the classical period or the golden age Ottoman architecture, the period of Western influence, the revival of 14th and 15th century designs and the trends that affected 19th century Ottoman architecture. It also elaborates on the prevalent designs during these periods and how they were achieved. At the end of the paper, there is a short discussion of the Byzantine cistern, the Yerebatan Sarnici or the sinking palace. Ottoman Architecture: A Travel Through Time The Ottoman Empire is considered as one of the greatest and most powerful civilizations that thrived in the modern period, encompassing the early fourteenth century lasting into the twentieth century. The empire’s moment of glory in the sixteenth century represents one of the heights of human optimism, artistry and creativity. They built the â€Å"largest and most influential Muslim empires of the modern world†,influencing the Muslim world as well and Europe in their military expansions (Hooker, 1996). There are two sources of Ottoman architecture: the development of new architectural forms in Anatolia, particularly Manisa, Iznik, Bursa and Seeuk during the 14th and 15th centuries and Christian art (Telerama, n. d. ). The early Ottoman period which started in the 14th century was the peak of Turkish architecture. During this period Ottoman art was in search for new ideas to form a certain style it can call its own. In this quest for its own identity, single-domed, tiered and sublime-angled mosques were given birth (Sansal, 2008). Many arts were also developed during this period such as the production of Iznik tiles, used in decorating mosques and other buildings. Artists from Tabriz introduced to the Ottoman empire the technique of creating the tiles. According to Goodwin (cited in Telerama, n. d. ), the floral motifs of Iznik tiles were utilized to symbolize a common motif of Islamic art—paradise garden. From Iznik tiles, Ottoman architecture gradually developed to give way to the classical architectural style or the of the â€Å"era of the domes†. This period started when the Ottoman empire captured Constantinople, the seat of eastern Christendom and making it its capital. It is here where they introduced various innovations in the arts and architecture. The Ottoman rule in Constantinople led to the transformation of the great Byzantine church, the Hagia Sophia, to an imperial mosque. This architectural became the source of inspiration of the Ottoman architects (Yalman, n. d. ). The Great Mosque or the Ulu Cami which was built in Bursa is the first Seljuk mosque that was converted into a dome. During this period, the building of Christian churches and the renovation of those in disrepair was prohibited by the Ottomans. The Ottoman rulers only tolerated the building of mosques for their Muslim faith. During this period, the plans of the mosques included inner and outward courtyards. The inner courtyard is inseparable from the mosque. More than just a place of worship, mosques during the Ottoman period were looked upon by society as an interconnection of city planning and communal life. As evident in the pictures of structures during this period, beside the mosque were soup kitchens, hospitals, theological schools, Turkish baths and tombs (Sansal, 2008). The architectural style during the late 14th and 15th centuries illustrate mosques with a large dome on a drum over a prayer hall that has a rectangular shape. Others include mosques with two domes in a single line. Steirlin said that â€Å"the two main domes, set one behind the other, are the distinguishing feature of a form of mosque that prevailed in the Ottoman world (cited in Telerama, n. d. ). Mehmed II, sixth successor to the Ottoman throne, ascended the Ottoman throne in 1444, ending his reign in 1481. During his rule, he introduced an ambitious rebuilding program for the empire. He tasked his architects to construct palaces and mosques, where the people could hold spiritual and social activities. Among the notable structures built during this period were the Old palace, the Topkapi palace and Fatih complex (Yalman, n. d. ). The Topkapi palace, built in 1478, served as the home of the sultans and the center of the Ottoman government for four hundred years. Being the seat of power for a long time, the original design of the palace changed through time. The architects during this period drew inspiration from Byzantine, Turkic and Perso-Islamic artistic repertoires. Aside from these art forms, the Ottoman architects were also swayed by Renaissance art. Mehmed II was fascinated with the development of art in western Europe as well as Iranian art. As a result thereof, European and Iranian artists infiltrated the Ottoman court and affected the kind of art and structures that were built during this period (Yalman, n. d. ). However, Mehmed II’s building programs only indicated the start of the flourishing of art and architecture in the Ottoman society. The Ottoman empire reached its zenith of splendor and power during the reign of Sultan Suleyman I, also known as â€Å"The Magnificent†. Being an avid fan of the arts and architecture, Ottoman architecture also began to take shape during his rule. Sinan, his architect, dominated Ottoman art. He patterned the structures that he built after Byzantine traditions and derived great influence from Hagia Sophia (MSN Encarta Online Encyclopedia, 2008). Mosques and religious complexes were built by Sinan and hundreds of public buildings were erected throughout the Ottoman empire. These buildings contributed to the dissemination and flourishing of Ottoman culture to the world (Yalman, n. d. ). Sinan built more than 300 structures in the Ottoman empire. He constructed at least 120 buildings in Constantinople and another 200 widely scattered across the empire. As the imperial architect, he took Ottoman architecture to new heights of style and grace (Whiting, 2000). Among the famous structures that he built were the following: the Sehzade kulliye (1548), and the Suleyman kulliye (after 1550) and his masterpiece, the Selim mosque at Edrine, Tur (1569-1575). These buildings reflect clarity and logic in plan and elevation. Every part was intended for a purpose and contributes to the whole structure, no unnecessary element was added. The central feature of architecture during the reign of Sinan is the dome; everything that was added to the building should complement and subordinate it. A cascade of descending half domes buttresses and vaults as well as open spaces were the prevalent designs during this period. The masterpieces which Sinan created was â€Å"the final perfection of two great traditions: a stylistic and aesthetic tradition that had been indigenous to Istanbul since the construction of the Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia in the 6th century and the other Islamic tradition of domical construction dating to the 10th century† (The Ottomans, 2002). The simple yet aesthetic touch that Ottoman architects exhibited in their craft is due to their military training. Sinan and other Ottoman architects were initially trained to be military engineers (The Ottomans, 2002). Sinan was the chief architect of the Ottoman empire. He drew his inspiration from the Hagia Sophia, a 1000 year old Christian Basilica of the Byzantine empire. In creating his masterpiece, the Suleymaniye Mosque (1550-57) in Istanbul, he achieved the effect of light through the use of 138 arched windows. He also used a rich marble sheathing and stalactite decorations. Sinan also adopted the design of Hagia Sophia, adding a little twist. Instead of a central-domed square with two flanking half domes, he created a complete square and surmounted it with a big central dome which he set on a high drum and ringed it with smaller domes with minarets on the corners of the small domes (MSN Encarta online encyclopedia, 2008). The mosque which Sinan built was more than just a mosque—it was a complex of buildings housing baths, soup kitchens, schools and shops. The innovation that he introduced to the design of the Hagia Sophia eliminated the use of columns; thus, there are no obstructions to view, light and air (Roberson, 1998). Windows, domes and arches dominated the 16th and 17th century Ottoman architecture. The Sinan style architecture emphasizes unity and coordination. No matter how small a part is, it is not neglected hence the architect sees to it that its design compliments with the whole. During this period, Ottoman architecture played a greater role than just building structures. The proliferation of building mosques and other edifice defined Ottoman power. The imperial architects followed a centralized design and implemented this throughout the empire. They also followed a standardized architecture to â€Å"Ottomanize the formerly Mamluk territories†. However, the architectural designs that were prevalent in the provinces did not exactly copy the architectural designs of structures in the capital of the empire. The designs in the rural areas had to conform with the available materials and skilled labor. The structures which were patronized by the provinces were the fountains, avanserais and building complexes which transformed the functions of the cities. Most of the mosques also exhibited hemisphirical domes and pencil-shaped minarets (Zeitlian, 2004). According to Baer (1989, p. 687), the highly articulated exteriors of Ottoman architecture reversed the standard Islamic preference in mosques which is to stress the interior at the expense of the exterior. However, the greatness of Ottoman architecture’s Golden Age waned in the 18th century, when architects deviated from classical architectural principles and adopted European styles. Baroque, Ampir and Rococo styles as well as excessive Western decorations influenced the architecture of the period. Fountains also proliferated the structures that were then built (Sansal, 2008). Sinan’s influence to Ottoman architecture almost disappeared in the 19th century. During this period, Abdul Aziz and Sultan Abdulhamit II and other architects began to search for an international identity of Ottoman architecture. In their quest for this identity, the architects did not look back to the classic Ottoman architecture of Sinan but to earlier architectural styles—the 14th and 15th century style in Turkey, 12th to 14th century styles in Andalusia particularly Seville and Granada in Spain and the 17th and 18th century styles in Moghul India. The innovations that 19th century architects introduced were more evident in the interior rather than the exteriors, which remained to be influenced by the West. They maintained an outward acceptance of western traditions and culture but kept the core and the heart of their craft to Islamic traditions. The prevalence of this kind of art exemplifies not just a simple act of change, but an indication of the empire’s visions. The Ottoman rulers in the second half of the 19th century stressed their leadership of the Sunni Muslims worldwide, thus the need to adopt foreign architectural styles and infusing it with Islamic traditions. The style that prevailed during this period is known as the new Ottoman Caliphal Islamic style. This style employed carved and painted woods with Kufi calligraphy, onion domes, horseshoe arches, towers and finials, use of flat areas of low relief and an exterior style of tile work (Duggan, 2002). According to Kuban (2001), the 19th century Ottoman architecture was not only limited to the erection of mosques. This period also gave way for the building of churches; however, literature delving on this century of Ottoman architecture fail to touch this topic. Ottoman architecture remained to be Muslim from the capture of Constantinople until the 18th century. During this period, the renovation and building of Christian churches was prohibited. Thus, no development on church architecture emerged. However, this rule changed by the end of the 18th century when legal and social rights were given to non-Muslims. By the 19th century, churches were built, some of them even adopting the styles that were employed in mosques such as the archs which were evident on the church’s interior. However, before growth of Ottoman architecture in Constantinople, the city already housed great architectural works. Aside from the famous Hagia Sophia, a beautiful architectural piece by itself, the Basilica cistern was built. It is located about south-west of the famous Hagia Sophia and served as one of the historical structures of Istanbul. This cistern contained a great number of marble columns that arose out of the water, thus the name â€Å"sinking palace†. The cistern was built during the rule of Emperor Justinianus. It is believed that seven thousand slaves worked on the cistern. The water that placed on such cistern came from the Egrikap? Water Distribution Centre in Belgrade Forest. The plan for the cistern was created by a group of German divers. Within the cistern are 336 columns which reflect the corinth and dor types, are nine meters high and are arranged in 12 rows. The support for the ceiling are cross shaped vaults and round arches. Since its foundation, the cistern has undergone numerous reparations and restorations. The cistern which can hold up to 100,000 tons of water, provided the water utilized in the palace of the Byzantine empire. During the conquest of the Ottomans, the cistern supplied water to the Topkapi palace. However, after the Ottomans have established their own water facilities, they ceased using the cistern as they preferred to use running water rather than still water. The cistern remained to be a secret from the west until the discovery by Dutch traveler who was studying the remains of the Byzantine empire. The cistern was transformed into a museum after undergoing reparations and restorations from 1985 to 1987. The cistern again went through deep cleaning in 1994 (Yerebatan Sarnici, n. d. ). Despite the numerous years that passed, the influences of Ottoman architecture still remain to be a source of awe and inspiration in the erection of buildings. The functional designs of Sinan, the employment of numerous windows to allow more air and light to circulate and the elimination of the use of too much columns in a structure to give more emphasis to the center serve as great contribution to modern day architecture.

Biodiversity conservation Essays

Biodiversity conservation Essays Biodiversity conservation Essay Biodiversity conservation Essay 2004 ) . The combined effects of such activities have led to the debasement of countries that have been held sacred by peculiar civilizations for 100s or even 1000s of old ages. Linkss between sacred land ( and H2O ) and preservation are non confined to minority religions, as they exist virtually in all religions around the universe. The mainstream religions, with many 1000000s of followings, have a immense influence on the manner in which we view and interact with the natural universe. This influence is reflected in big portion by determining people s doctrine and moralss. However, this is linked to the ownership of land, investing, and political and societal factor. The pattern of biodiversity preservation is profoundly rooted in scientific discipline along with the associated layman and mercenary world-view. This can present a menace to sacred infinites, if religious, cultural, and spiritual values are non included in the planning phase of preservation direction. Although protecting a sacred site officially or through statute law prevents its traditional usage, it is likely to do a cultural split and outrage by degrading the well preserved sacred nature ( WWF, 2005 ) . Background of the country Uttarakhand is divided into two administrative divisions, Garhwal and Kumaon. The Garhwal part extends from 29AÂ °26 to 30AÂ ° 28 North latitude and 77AÂ °49 80AÂ °06 East longitude. It is situated between the feeders of Ganges- Alaknanda and Mandakini and was designated by Aryans as the heavenly land or Dev Bhoomi . In fact, Eden ( Swarg ) in those yearss was sought to be identified with the part of Garhwal Himalaya, where the mountains ( like Meru , Kailash , Gandhmadan ) and blessed home ground ( like Kuvela , Shiva , and Vishnu ( Mahabharata ) ) were found. After the Vedic Age , this piece of land had been known as Brahmarishi Deha ( Manu:11. 1919 ) , while during the heroic period it was known as Panchala Desha . Afterward, the part was known as Garhwal which stemmed from two words Garh ( district ) and wal ( the name of the male monarch in that period ) . The Kumaon part extends from 28Â ° 44 and 30Â ° 49 N ( latitude ) and 78Â ° 45 and 81Â ° 1 E ( longitude ) . The word Kumaon can be traced back to the fifth century BC. The Kassite Assyrians left their fatherland Kummah , on the Bankss of river Euphrates and settled in the northern portion of India. These dwellers formed Koliyan folks, as they settled freshly in Kumaon . Lord Buddha s female parent, Mayabati belonged to this kin. As another version of the beginning, the word Kumaon has been believed to deduce from Kurmanchal a hill near Champawat which was the old capital of the Chand male monarchs. Kurmanchal was the land of the Kurmavatar ( the tortoise embodiment of Lord Vishnu, the refinisher harmonizing to Hindu mythology ) ( Gajrani, 2004 ) . The earliest historical mentions to the part are found in the Vedas. The being of the mountains was specifically addressed in the Mahabharata, dated back to about 1000 BC, when the supporters of the heroic poem, the Pandavas, are said to hold ended their life on Earth by go uping the inclines of a extremum in Western Garhwal called Swargarohini literally, the Ascent to Heaven . Physical geography of Uttarakhand Uttarakhand is the youngest mountain province of the Republic of India and was carved out of Uttar Pradesh on the 9th of November 2000. It consists of two words uttar intending north and khand intending portion . It occupies 17.3 % of India s entire land country with 53,566 sq. kilometer of which 92.57 % is under hills and 7.43 % under fields. Uttarakhand is located between 770 34 27 to 810 02 22 E longitude and 280 53 24 to 310 27 50 N latitude ( Figure 1 ) . The province has diverse home grounds runing from the snow bound extremums of the Himalayas with the highest Nanda Devi ( 7,817 m ) to the sub-tropical Terai part. It has a population of about 8.48 million at 158.3 individuals per sq. kilometer ( FSI, 2005 ) . The boundary line of Uttarakhand touches with Nepal in the East and China in the North. Traditional cognition and Environmental preservation Traditional societies are characterized by their close interconnectedness with nature and its resources. They depend upon natural resources and biodiversity for their support ( Ramakrishnan, 1996 ) . This bond with nature and natural resources extends beyond the economic kingdom, as societal, cultural and religious dimensions besides play a important function ( Ramakrishnan et al. 1998 ) . Ecosystems sustain themselves in a dynamic balance based on rhythms and fluctuations, which are nonlinear procedures. The subject of traditional ecological cognition is of import in the consideration of a wide scope of inquiries related to nature-human relationships. Different groups of people in assorted parts of the universe perceive and interact with nature otherwise by sharing different traditions of environmental cognition. Their perceptual experiences and cognition are in portion shaped by their values, worldviews, environmental moralss, and faith. In the geographic expedition of environmenta l moralss and faith to an ecologically sustainable society, autochthonal peoples and traditional ecological cognition have attracted considerable attending from both bookmans and popular motions. As a cognition and pattern belief, traditional ecological cognition includes worldview and spiritual traditions of a society. Every cultural group portions a scope of environmental values and moralss along with their patterns. Environmental dealingss of a group are non unvarying but they are shaped by the daily interactions every bit good as their worldview and moralss. The Hindus in India accept nature as deity, manifestation of God ; as such, natural elements like workss, animate beings, H2O, Earth and fire all become portion of ceremonials and worship. Traditional cognition can run from what are called old married womans narratives to highly complex, formal and statute systems, e.g. , the Indian medical cognition system of Ayurveda ( Nadkarni and Chauhan, 2004 ) . Plant preservation is frequently presented based on scientific contexts of world and truth every bit good as related subjects of single to ecological reclamation. For many visitants, their cardinal religious or spiritual positions frame their beliefs, values, and actions, including all facets of works preservation, instruction, and reclamation. In Garhwal Himalaya, there are communities that are the depositories of huge accretions of traditional cognition and experiences that link humanity with its antediluvian beginnings. The local communities and their wealth of local cognition are seen as the heroes of resource preservation, instead than scoundrels of resource depletion as known earlier. ( page 9, Agarwal, 1997 ) . Traditional cognition of H2O direction in Uttarakhand was reported by a few writers ( Rawat and Sah, 2009 ; Sharma, 2008 ) The disappearing of these communities is a loss for the society, which otherwise could hold informed us a great trade of their traditional accomplishments ( WCED, 1987 ) . Traditional cognition and H2O direction Water is a cherished gift of nature and indispensable for the endurance of all signifiers of life. The usage of H2O has been an built-in portion of human life, every bit old as civilisation itself. The great Harappan civilisation developed in this continent during 2500-1500 BC chiefly because of H2O. Vedic literature ( 800-600 BC ) , particularlyRig-Vedais full with anthem about irrigated land, fluxing rivers, pools, and Wellss ( Agarwal and Narayan, 1997 ) . As an built-in portion of the Indian heritage, the Himalayas of which woods provide vegetive screen for the major river systems in India serve as H2O reservoir and a warehouse of biodiversity ( Rawat, 2000 ) . Uttarakhand is the catchment country of the Indo-Gangetic field and the cradle of the Indo-Gangetic civilisation. Water is revered and regarded as sacred from clip immemorial. In Garhwal and Kumaon part, small towns have a set of cultivated land, human colony, and forest country ; in the upper catchment of the small towns, they used to hold smaller or bigger H2O thumping constructions such as Tals, Khals, Chals and Rou. About 95 % of the small towns in Uttarakhand have such types of construction in its district or catchment. Their acknowledgment of H2O retaining constructions and H2O buffeting constructions has been built through their tradition. In scientific position, their cognition of smaller H2O recharge constructions ( khals ) or bigger H2O organic structures ( tals ) in higher ranges of the habitation or agricultural land played an of import function in the recharge of springs, rills, and gadheras. Traditional medical system The traditional medical systems of northern India ( such as Ayurveda and Tibetan ) are a portion of clip tested civilization ( Kala et al. 2006 ) . Medicative workss have strong credence in spiritual activities of north Indian native communities, who worshiped the workss in the signifier of God, goddesses, and minor divinities ( Silori and Badola, 2000 ; Dhyani, 2000 ) . To call some of them, Origanum vulgare, Saussurea obvallata, Ocimum sanctum, Cedrus deodara, Cynodon dactylon, Aegle marmelos, Juniperus communis, Musa paradissica, Nardostachys grandiflora, Zanthoxylum armatum, Ficus benghalensis, and Ficus religiosa are illustrations of the medicative workss used normally for medicative every bit good as a spiritual intents by the Hindus in northern India ( Kala et al. , 2006 ) . Apart from human usage, many works species were besides used in carnal husbandary as the primary beginning of health care ( Samal et al. 2004, Kala et Al. 2004 ) . Bhotiyas are an cultural community of Mongoloid beginning. They were traditional trans-border bargainers who traded between India and former Tibet ( now China ) and Nepal until trans-bordering was terminated in 1962 due to Sino-Indian struggle ( Farooquee et al. 2004 ) . Until the 1960s, people shacking in the remote and unaccessible high heights of Himalaya were non exposed to any signifiers of medical intervention. Hence, they were wholly dependent on the Bhotiya system of traditional intervention. The autochthonal Bhotiya intervention chiefly focused on complaints like stomachic jobs, digestive system, dysentery and diarrhea, liver malfunctioning, kidney rock, fever, blood purifier, common cold and cough, tegument diseases, and energy and verve of the organic structure. Taboos as a agency of works and animate being preservation Taboos are the unwritten, orally transmitted traditional and societal regulations that regulate human behaviour ( Colding and Folke, 1997 ; Banjo et Al. 2006 ) . In Uttarakhand, there are a figure of workss, animate beings, and lakes that are regarded as sacred in the sense that no felling or development was carried out. As a consequence, it means that different species of trees and animate beings which are economically of import are preserved in such a manner that they will organize a good familial reservoir and service as a usher against extinction of these species. It will be worthwhile to analyze the cognitive foundations of the autochthonal cognition, ethnoecology, and ethnoforestry. Ethno-forestry is the survey of continued pattern of creative activity, preservation, direction, and usage of forest resources, through customary ways in local communities ( Pandey, 1996, 2003 ) . Religious beliefs, tradition, and civilization are the merchandises of logical internalisation of human experience and acquisition. Historically, several faiths have explicitly or implicitly prescribed learning related to responsibility of its followings toward the environment ( Banjo et al. , 2006 ) . This position was substantiated by Anderson as cited by Pandey ( 2003 ) , when he stated that ecological wisdom in tabu, symbols, and cosmologies of traditional societies transmit the cognition of preservation to the younger coevals. It helped them pull off resources good through spiritual or ritual representation. Trees have a really particular function in the ethos of the people in Uttarakhand. Chandrakanth and Romm ( 1991 ) stated that sacred trees symbolize specific arrays of human conditions, possibilities, and expectancy. Speciess of trees are worshipped as ( 1 ) manifestation of Gods, ( 2 ) representatives of peculiar stars and planets, and ( 3 ) symbols of the natural elements ( energy, H2O, land, and air ) each of which has its ain independent and rational significances. There are illustrations where communities regulate the usage of resource by curtailing the entree to resources and implementing conformity through spiritual belief, ritual, and societal convention which in fact aid biodiversity preservation in such community. Trees have long been protected or conserved through spiritual tabu, values, and patterns ( Pandey, 2003 ) . The functions of spiritual and cultural beliefs in protecting trees have been observed by other research workers ( Pandey, 2003 ) . The dependance of rural people on the wood and their involvements in its saving have been institutionalized through assorted societal and cultural mechanism ( such as tabu ) . Despite their evident unreason, spiritual limitation such as tabus may therefore be extremely rational ways of conserving resources: Pandey ( 2003 ) described societal restraints such as tabu which led to autochthonal biological preservation like supplying entire protection to some biological communities, home ground spots, and certain selected species. The flower of Brahmkamal (Saussurea obvallata) , an alpine species is the most valued as the offerings to Lord Shiva (Shri Kedarnath) and Lord Vishnu (Shri Badrinath) in Garhwal Himalaya. These flowers are non plucked before Nanda Astami ( falls in the last hebdomad of August or the first hebdomad of September ) as the seeds mature at this clip. These people have a impression that if the flowers ofBrahmkamalare plucked before this day of the month, there will be a natural catastrophe. In Indonesia, as in Garhwal Himalaya,Ficus bengalensisis considered to be sacred. Springs are frequently found under banian trees in Indonesia, as they have a belief that holy liquors reside in the trees and guarantee the handiness of clean H2O. Dodital and Devariyatal a two lakes in Uttarkashi and Rudraprayag territory of Uttarakhand are considered sacred so that fishing is wholly restricted. There is a tabu that if fishing is done in that lake, fisherman will endure from leprosy. Speciess such as sac red fig (Ficus religiosa ) ,mountain king of beasts(Felis concolor) ,and southern pocket goffer (Thomomys umbrinus emotus) areprotected by Hindus tabu for specific species all across the Indian subcontinent ( Colding and Folke, 2000 ) . Sacred Groves and Biodiversity Conservation There has been a close linkage between human existencesand nature preservation since the beginning of runing and garnering societies. The relationship between world and Earth is based on a belief that the planet s biospheric life support system is sacred ( Cairns, 2002 ) . In India, as elsewhere in many parts of the universe, a figure of communities pattern different signifiers of nature worship. Early worlds worshipped nature with fear and exploited its resources sustainably to run into their lower limit needs merely. Every civilization has beliefs which answer in different ways the cardinal inquiry about how and where people originated, and how they should act with their environment ( Elder and Wong, 1994 ) . Forests are the topic of a great trade of myth, fable, and lore. Societies most closely entwined with woods tend to see them in a healthy regard, awe at their luster and stateliness, and sometimes experience awful and fright of the powerful liquors that lurk within them. They have been the line of life for tribal and other forest-dwelling communities. For preservation of this critical resource, people began to utilize the construct of sacred Grovess. The historical links of frightened Grovess have been traced back to the pre-agricultural, runing and garnering phase of societies, when human society was in a crude province ( Gadgil and Vartak, 1975 ; Khumbongmayum et Al. 2004 ) . The most ancientvedicBibles demonstrate an ecological consciousness and great regard for the natural universe through the congratulations of divinities. There are many specific instructions on environmental affairs throughout the texts, and ecological activitists have drawn much inspiration from those ( Vanucci, 1999 ) . Such constructs have been a portion of rich tradition and diverse civilization in Indian societies through many coevalss. Sacred Groves ( SGs ) and temple woods are one of the oldest signifiers of preservation. These little wood spots with tall trees, lianas, and bushs stand foring the celebrated construction of good maintained woods are sc attered amidst the debauched landscapes all over the state. These woods, although little and scattered, portion two common characteristics,i.e., sacredness and religion in a divinity. A sacred wood can hence be described as any wood or flora strand that is considered valuable by local communities and protected by the community for spiritual and religious grounds ( Spencer, 1998 ) . One of such important traditions is the protection of spots of woods dedicated to divinities and/or hereditary liquors. A few illustrations described by Vanucci ( 1999 ) ( as in Ramasubramanian, 2008, Page 5 ) are: Do non cut trees, because they remove pollution ( Rig Vedic literature, 6:48:17 ) . Do non upset the sky and do non foul the ambiance ( Yajur Vedic literature, 5:43 ) . Destruction of woods is taken as devastation of the province, and re-afforestation an act of reconstructing the province and progressing its public assistance. Protection of animate beings is considered a sacred responsibility ( Charak sanhita ) . No animal is superior to any other. Human existences should non be above nature. Let no 1 species encroach over the rights and privileges of other species ( Isha-Upanishads ) Plants ( Oshadhis ) and trees ( Vanaspatis ) are embodied as goddesses and divinities and jointly aroused as jungle goddess or Aranyani in the Vedas. All faiths and civilizations of the South Asiatic part are ingrained in woods, non out of fright and ignorance but due to the ecological perceptual experience that SGs are the sections of landscape incorporating flora and other signifiers of life and geographical characteristics. These SGs are delimited and protected by human societies under the belief that maintaining them in a comparatively undisturbed province is of import to worlds. A figure of human societies in Asia, Africa, Europe, America, and Australia had long been continuing certain subdivisions of their natural environment as sacred Grovess ( Hughes and Chandran, 1998 ) . The Grovess have evolved under different socio-ecological and cultural state of affairss to offer many ecological, environmental, and socio-cultural maps to the society. During the ancient times, autochtho nal people depended on woods and rivers for their day-to-day subsistence and regarded a assortment of natural objects as sacred. The billboard and greedy inclination for over development of the resources neer existed in the early adult male s idea. Largely all the spiritual shrines in Garhwal Himalaya are located beside the meeting of five feeders in the sacred river Ganges. Although biological diverseness of Himalaya is really rich, comparatively small is known about the sacred Grovess of this part. A assortment of natural objects are regarded as sacred by the Hindu community, which include the river Ganges, its feeders and their meeting along with the spiritual shrines ( Badrinath, Kedarnath, Yamunotri and Gangotri ) and sacred mountain extremums ( Nanda Devi, Trishul, Chaukhamba, Kailash, Binsar and Shivling ) . Trees are an indispensable portion of life, and their importance described in the heroic poems Ramayana has left a great impact on world which maintained equilibrium for the subsistence of life until the last century ( i.e. , twentieth century ) . However, increasing population and inclination toward industrialisation brought an instability to this natural equilibrium. The basic elements of naturePrithvi( Earth ) , Agni( Fire ) ,Jal( Water ) ,Vayu( Air ) , andAkash( Space ) were worshipped in one signifier or another since antediluvian times in the Hindu mythology which as a consequence acquired the protection for religious and spiritual grounds. It was through the worship of trees that human existences attempted to near God ( Sinha, 1979 ) . Many works species are considered to be sacred in the Himalaya and are used in rites ( Table 1 ) and offerings to Gods such as Ficusbenghalensis,Ficus religiosa, Ocimum sanctum,Cynodon dactylon,Mangifera indica,Astromoniumspp,Azadirachta indica,Sassurea obvallata( Anthwal et al. 2006 ) . Because many works species ( Table 2 ) have medicative value, they are used in ayurvedic medical specialties to bring around complaints ( Anthwal et al. 2006 ) . The sacred animate beings include: tiger, cow, elephant, Inachis io, bullock, cobra, rat, cat, and birds ( like neelkanth, hilas, ababil, and vulture ) . In India, particularly the people shacking in hills have a rich tradition of environmental preservation through their socio-cultural and spiritual interactions. Sacred Grovess in the hills of Garhwal are mentioned in old Hindu scriptures like the Puranas. Malhotra ( 1998 ) in his partial numbering of Grovess in India reported 5,691 sacred Grovess. Around 14,000 sacred Grovess have been repo rted from all over India, which act as reservoirs of rare zoology and vegetation. Some experts believe that the entire figure of sacred Grovess could be every bit high as 100,000 ( Malhotra et al. 2001 ; Guha, 2000 ) . The rejection and replacing of those traditional patterns with the coming of modern industrial society changed undoubtedly the ethos from an orientation toward preservation to development of nature. However, certain spiritual tabu and societal patterns are still observed among the hunter-gatherers, pastoralists, and even some subdivisions of modern society, which help in preservation. Sacred Grovess are ecologically and genetically of import. They are the residences of rare, endemic, and endangered species of vegetations and zoologies. Besides, they serve the map of continuing familial diverseness of common tree species. The hill community of Garhwal Himalaya regards a assortment of natural objects, i.e. , rivers, lakes, rills, springs, meetings, mountain extremums, workss, animate beings, flowers, and even the full Himalayas as sacred. The Himalayas have been considered the place of LordShivaandVishnu. The typical local belief systems were woven together into a composite cloth by pl acing many of the liquors with a few cardinal Gods in the Hindu pantheon. Predominant among these wereShivaorIshwara( male phallic worship ) and the female parent goddess ( female birthrate worship ) . A good proportion of local liquors were identified with these two, while others were associated with them. Therefore, elephant worship became the worship ofGanesa, one of the boies ofShivaandAnapurnas.Shivais besides calledPasupati Godhead of animals. He rides a male bull,Nandiand around his cervix is an intertwined cobra.The Deodar (Cedrus deodara) has been considered the tree of God and is planted around temples in Garhwal Himalaya. Many landscapes ( Chiplakedar, Tarkeshwar, Haryali, Binsar, Kuinkaleshwar, Tapovan, Thal ke Dhar, Nagdev, Kalimath, Goldev, Maywati, Kot, Syahi Devi, Chandrabadni, Paabo, Dewal and Chapdon ) represent rich biological diverseness and complex ecosystems in Garhwal Himalaya. These landscapes have been considered sacred due to association with a divinity and are conserved in pristine status by prohibiting the development of any resource from these landscapes ( Table 3 ) . This scheme is correspondent to the present twenty-four hours s construct of biodiversity preservation through protection of sanctuaries, national Parkss, and biosphere militias. A brief description of some of the sacred Grovess located in the Garhwal Himalaya are listed below: 1. The Haryali sacred grove is located at an height of 2,850 m above mean sea degree in the Rudraprayag territory of Garhwal Himalaya. Fetching of fresh fish and fuelwood and the motion of adult females andSudras( scheduled castes ) have been purely prohibited in this grove since the Epic period ( Mahabharata period ) . A temple of Goddess Hariyali Devi is located in this forest spot. 2. Devban sacred grove is located 16 kilometers off from Chakrata at an height of 2896 m above average sea degree in the Dehradun territory of Garhwal Himalaya. It is surrounded by dense woods. 3. The Binsar sacred grove is located at a distance of 20 km North of Thalisain ( Pauri Garhwal ) at an height of 2,567 m above mean sea degree. A close linkage between cultural properties and forest preservation has been clearly seeable here since the station Vedic period. 4. Surkanda Devi sacred grove is situated at an lift of 3030 m above average sea degree. The temple is situated on the top of a mountain and is of great spiritual significance. A just is held every twelvemonth on Ganga Dussehra during May-June. 5. Tapkeshwar sacred grove is situated on the bank of a rill in the Dehradun territory and is an ancient topographic point of worship. It is named Tapkeshwar as H2O droplets, arising from a stone, autumn on the shivling placed in the shrine. It is devoted to Lord Shiva. 6. Sahastradhara literally intending the 1000 fold spring is situated at a distance of 11 kilometers from Dehradun. The Baldi River and caves provide a breathtaking position. There is a sulphur spring in which people bathe in the belief that bathing in the spring cures skin infections. 7. Chandrabani sacred grove ( besides known as Gautam Kund ) is situated 7 kilometers off from Dehradun. Harmonizing to fabulous beliefs, this topographic point was inhabited by Maharishi Gautam, his married woman, and girl Anjani who are widely worshipped by the people. It is believed that Ganga had manifested herself on the topographic point that is popularly known as Gautam Kund. 8. Kedarnath is considered the holiest of Shiva s shrines in the Himalayas. It is likened in the Skanda Purana to Jahnavi ( Ganga ) amongst rivers, the Brahmin amongst work forces, and gold amongst metals. Hindus believe that whoever dies here becomes one with Shiva and that the belongingss of the sacred land are believed to cleanse the most hard-boiled evildoer. The temple bases at the caput of the Mandakini river in the shadow of the Kedarnath extremum. It is dedicated to the worship of Sadasiva, the unseeable signifier of Shiva. The symbolic Phallus, the Jyotirlinga or resplendent lingam, one of the 12 scattered over India, is in the signifier of a natural stone ; it is besides called the Shankaracharyashiva. Beyond the temple stretches, the snowy sweep is known as the mahapanth, the main road of Eden. A short distance off is a precipice known asBhairav-jhanp-Shiva s spring. Until the first one-fourth of the last century, certain fans would perpetrate ritual self-destruction by th rowing themselves off the border in the belief that Shiva would thereby allow them instant redemption. Not really far off is the Chorabari Tal, now renamed the Gandhi Sarovar, where the river Mandakini originates. 9. Dhwaj sacred grove is 15 kilometer from Pithoragarh near Totanaula. There is a mountain called Dhwaj situated at an lift of 2134 m above average sea degree. It is an residence of Goddess Jayanti ( or Durga ) and Lord Shiva, atop the hill. Hindu legend states that at this topographic point, Devi killed the devils Chanda and Munda . Dense forests in the mountain are considered sacred, so it is in an first-class province of conserved biome with a big figure of endemic workss. 10. The Tapovan sacred grove ( 2,744 m above mean sea degree ) is situated 17 kilometers off from Joshimath ( Chamoli territory ) of Garhwal Himalaya. This country has dense forest screen with rich wildlife. The full country of Tapovan is sacredly preserved for its rich biodiversity. 11. Nilkanth Mahadeo is situated at a tallness of 1,675 meters on a hill above Swarg Ashram. It is one of the most august temples of Rishikesh. Hindu mythology says that in the antediluvian times when there was a conflict between Devtas and Ashuras, the ocean was churned for amrit ( Potion for immortality ) and a pot of toxicant emerged from the ocean. To protect the universe from its evil effects, Godhead Shiva drank that toxicant at a topographic point which is now called Nilkanth Mahadeo. It is 12 kilometer from Rishikesh and is surrounded by dense and peaceable woods. There are many freshwater organic structures in Garhwal Himalaya which are considered sacred since the immemorial clip. The full Ganges and its feeders ( Bhagirathi, Bhilangana, Alaknanda, Mandakini, Pindar, Nayar, and Dhauliganga ) and their meetings ( Karnaprayag, Vishnuprayag, Rudraprayag, Ganeshprayag and Deoprayag ) have been considered sacred by the people of Garhwal. Entire stretches of Ganges at Rishikesh and Hardwar have been declared as spiritual fish sanctuaries in Garhwal Himalaya. Any sort of fishing in this stretch of river is purely prohibited. Some of the lakes ( Masar tal, Dodital, Deoria tal, and Nachiketa tal ) in Garhwal Himalaya are considered sacred where development of fish has been purely prohibited. Some of the hotsprings ( Tapta Kund ( Badrinath and Yamunotri ) , Garam Pani and Gauri Kund ) and sulphur springs ( Tapovan, Sahastradhara ) are considered sacred. Madkot, 22 kilometer from Munsiyari, has hot H2O springs that are good for skin complaints and remedy rheumatism and arthritis. Any sort of pollution is non permitted in these H2O organic structures. Some of the wild animate beings, particularly wild caprine animal (Nemorhaedus goul goul) , Cobra (Naja Naja) , Jackal (Canis aureus) and wild birds like Ababil (HirundOdaurica) , Neelkanth (Coracias benghalensis) , and Vulture (Gypaetus barbatus aureus) have been considered sacred in Garhwal Himalaya. Forest Motions in the Himalayas Forests in India and the Himalayas are characterized by a huge diverseness of dirt types and climes. The Himalayan part has a assortment of moist and dry temperate woods altering into alpine flora at the highest heights. In India, forests play three major functions, i.e. , economic, endurance, and market. Forest regulates the H2O supply and preserves soil to back up the viability of the critical economic map, therefore lending to the economic development. On the other manus, woods provide the supply of basic domestic demands of fresh fish, fuel, and fertiliser. Therefore, one can lend to the endurance of economic system and eventually the market economic system by supplying wood for developmental demands in industries and commercial intents. The protection and extension of woods is profoundly rooted in the Indian civilisation, while being apparent from the being of sacred Grovess in the small town woods, springs, and extremums. These patterns are of ecological and economic value. In the ecological sense, endemic and natural flora stabilizes dirt and H2O. Economically, woods provide lumber, fresh fish, fuel, fiber, medical specialties, oils, and dyes. In Ayurveda, more than 2,000 species of workss, both wild and cultivated were used. The function of trees for both endurance and economic well being has created the demand for their preservation and was achieved through the construct of sacredness. In the archeological remains of the Harappan civilization, trees were held in high regard and were worshipped until the 3rd or 4th millenary BC ( Shiva, 1991 ) . Planting trees, either for their fruit or for the proviso of shadiness, has been a pattern in India since antediluvian times. For case, in the Himalayas, people still gat her below theFicustrees for village meetings and treatments. The forest Act of 1927 aroused a new response against the denial of traditional rights of local people. During the 1930s, forest motions started against the sole development of the wood for commercial intents by the British and against the transmutation of a common resource into a trade good. This forest motion was successful peculiarly in this part. In the Himalayan part, local populations are largely dependent on the wood for fuel, fresh fish, and lumber. In Tilari small town of Tehri Garhwal in the Himalaya, several villagers were killed, and 100s injured on 30 May 1930 due to their protest against the limited usage of their community woods. The motions were eventually successful in resuscitating their traditional rights to forest merchandises as recognized privileges. This forest Satyagraha was resorted by Dewan Chadhradhar Juyal in the absence of the King of Tehri. The Satyagraha was by and large the protest against t he statute law imposed by the British disposal which transformed the critical common resources into reserved resources for gross and net income generation.A Hence, the forest Satyagraha was a response to struggles for the resources which were needed for the endurance of the local people. For successful biodiversity preservation within the complex and altering landscapes of India, one needs to see non merely ecological factors but besides socio-economic issues. The displacement in biodiversity preservation from a protectionist signifier of saving toward one with a sustainable use has focused on the demand for engagement in preservation direction. The society will be responsible for the realisation of preservation ends, if they are involved in reading and execution. To this terminal, deliberative decision-making can be utile when people s supports are influenced by preservation actions ( White et al. 2005 ) . In India, conflicts over forest resources can be categorized into a figure of stages. Large piece of lands of woods were reserved by the British for commercial development during the first stage ( late 19th and early twentieth centuries ) for military and other demands which led to forest battles and forest motions. The forest policy of the twelvemonth 1952, which promoted the rapid enlargement of wood based industries, led to a large-scale felling of natural woods and their transition to monocultures of commercial species during the 2nd stage. During the 2nd stage ( 1970s-1980s ) , Chandi Prasad Bhatt, an activitist in an NGO named Dasholi Swarajya Seva Sangh ( DGSS ) raised their voices against the authorities along with the people of Mandal small town. In the twelvemonth 1973, the forest section refused to assign a batch of hornbeam trees from which the local people use to do agricultural implements. To their discouragement, the same trees were auctioned to a featuring goods compa ny. The DGSS along with the people of Mandal small town in the propinquity of the disputed wood threatened to embrace the trees alternatively of leting the lumbermans in. Another illustration of actions against commercial forestry is that the successful Chipko motion was initiated in Chamoli territory in Garhwal Himalaya by an illiterate adult female named Gaura Devi, as she protested against the tree film editing. She believed that trees are God, as they are needed for endurance ( eg. , fuel and fresh fish ) . The 3rd stage was brought in by the barren development plans ( in 1980s ) . Plantations were done by the industries on agricultural and village lands due to a deficiency of natural stuffs for wood-based industry which so gave rise to struggles during the 1880ss ( Shiva, 1991 ) . The present clip is the 4th stage, as we are looking for energy replacements or biofuel to replace crude oil merchandises. These energy replacement plans will be supported by major investings in fores try that will take to forest struggles in the whole state. Doon vale in Garhwal Himalaya shows an illustration of how the colonial wood policy replaced traditional direction systems of forest usage for basic demands with the debut of commercial forestry. Status and Importance of sacred grovesA Sacred Grovess are a good illustration of ethno-environmental direction. Our ascendants were cognizant that the natural resources which sustained them should be conserved. However, today s fast growing of infra-structural installations and on-farm activities has caused the impairment of the Grovess. Many valuable tree species for lumber have been exploited therefore replacing oak woods with pine woods. This alteration has left considerable ecological harm. As the dirt becomes more acidic, it can impact alimentary cycling and dirt birthrate to a grade. Sacred Grovess are the victims of touristry industry every bit good, as it is deteriorating the religion in divinities and Grovess. Such sacredly protected countries provide a comprehensive and rich ecological niche as depositories of familial diverseness. Furthermore, it is felt that there are enormous sum of force per unit area both straight and indirectly on these Grovess which are therefore endangering their being. These menaces can be related to increasing chances of touristry ( with the deficiency of an in-built preservation attempt ) , higher demands for NTFPs, fuel wood aggregation, and lessening in the spiritual religions along with the decreased committedness of the present coevals toward such natural sacred topographic points. Last, one may see the heavy load of developmental intercessions that little provinces like Uttarakhand are prepared to set about. The Grovess located near the colonies are vanishing at a faster rate. Merely a few sacred Grovess are still under their pristine conditions and these include Hariyali, Tapovan, Binsar, and Tarkeshwar in Garhwal Himalaya. Other Grovess are vanishing, as the woods are being cleared and utilized for the building and repairing of divinity houses. Most temple Grovess are seen to vanish due to inevitable factors ( e.g. , carnal graze and human intervention ) . A More attendings have been paid toward sacred Grovess for their possible as a tool and theoretical account for biodiversity preservation due to high preservation and biodiversity values held in these Grovess. In its 1996 sacred sites- Cultural Integrity, Biological Diversity ( 1996 ) , UNESCO recognized that ( as in Maniyath, 2006 ) : Sacred Grovess have served as of import reservoirsofbiodiversity, continuing alone species of workss, insects and animate beings. Sacred and forbidden associations attached to peculiar species of trees, forest Grovess, mountains, rivers, caves and temple sites should therefore continue to play an of import function in the protection of peculiar ecosystems by local people. Particular works species are frequently used by traditional therapists and priests who have a strong involvement in the saving of such sites and ecosystems. In some parts of the universe, beliefs that liquors inhabit relict countries have served to rapidly renew abandoned swidden secret plans into mature forest. In other countries, sacred topographic points play a major portion in safeguarding critical sites in the hydrological rhythm of watershed countries. Furthermore, in a figure of cases,sacred sites have besides been instrumental in continuing the ecological unity of full landscapes. For these grounds, sacred s ites can assist in measuring the possible natural flora of debauched ecosystems or ecosystems modified by worlds . The sacred Grovess are topographic points that symbolize the dynamic societal forces linked with entree and control over resources. They have a great heritage of diverse cistron pools for many forest species with socio-religious fond regard and medicative values. Sacred Grovess are ecologically and genetically really of import, as they are the residence of rare, endemic, and endangered species of vegetations and zoologies.Quercusspp ( Oak ) is adored and is used for many intents. It is an of import fresh fish and fuelwood species, while being an of import constituent of the mountain forest ecosystem. It improves dirt birthrate through efficient alimentary cycling. It conserves soil wet through humus build up and partially through a deeply placed root system which has a root biomass distributed uniformly throughout the dirt profile. Sacred Grovess are of huge value, as they are good beginnings of non-wood wood merchandises, fatso oils, and many other species ( like Piper nigrum, cinna mon and Myristica fragrans, and medicative workss ) . The faunal wealth of sacred Grovess is besides rich. Sacred Grovess should be considered in future surveies, as they play an of import function in H2O preservation and ordinance of microclimate in the cragged countries of Uttarakhand Himalaya. Decision Sacred Grovess serve as tools that permit the direction of biotic resources through people s engagement. Knowledge and consciousness about sacred Grovess is really of import for developing new schemes for rehabilitation and Restoration of debauched landscapes. This should affect local people and supply preparation for the publicity of traditional and societal norms. There is an pressing demand for preservation, Restoration and proper direction of bing Grovess. Traditional attacks for nature preservation include a figure of prescriptions and prohibitions for the sustainable usage of resources. These forest landscapes need proper preservation, direction and protection. To protect them from farther debasement, preservation schemes must be employed. Increase in developmental activities and substructure installations in Garhwal Himalaya are deteriorating the proper operation of sacred groves.A It therefore reflects that these Grovess can no longer be of import contrary to what they used t o be in the yesteryear. Today, preservation and keeping ecological balance has become the chief challenge for the people. Forests in the cragged countries are confronting huge anthropogenetic force per unit area ( discerping for fuel wood and fresh fish, graze, illegal harvest home for lumber, forest fires, etc ) for subsistence life. Degradation of woods in many topographic points has reached a phase where recovery is hard. In a state where woods sustain the support of 500 million people, pull offing woods is important, peculiarly in the Himalayan part. In such state of affairss lessons can be learnt, and schemes can germinate from common people wisdom to assist conserve nature. The autochthonal pattern of biodiversity preservation should be nurtured in sacred Grovess. As this pattern involves local peoples engagement, the SG will be a large measure toward biodiversity preservation. This is because any preservation scheme is worthless without affecting local people. Small attending or apathy of decision m akers toward the deteriorating status of holy topographic points and the Grovess may add another dimension. These imposts and traditions should be emphasized through the intercession of authorities by sharing its function with the local communities in determination making.A The sacred Grovess in Garhwal Himalaya clearly reflect the close linkages between the cultural properties of the Garhwal community and its preservation. As small towns form the anchor of Uttarakhand, preservation scheme must underlie the spiritual and economic venue of the small town, represented by the sacred grove. The workss in the sacred Grovess have really high intrinsic value and are frequently considered Godhead. There is an pressing demand of people with sufficient love for ecosystems and sound cognition of civilization and tradition to protect nature from the inordinate greed of world. There is a demand for rejuvenating ancient ethos that the planet s biospheric life support system is sacred and that it should be protected for sustainability. The mission of these frightened Grovess is to carry people to alter their behaviour in the spirit of a co-evolutionary relationship with nature. Religion and belief should be respected before declaring them abominable, as they have an o f import function toward the preservation of the natural resources that sustain the biospheric life support system. Recognitions The writers are grateful to Dr. B.P. Nautiyal, Tara Joy and Stella Joy for their aid in garnering information from the local people. 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Divergent Evolution

Divergent Evolution The definition of evolution is a change in a population of a species over time. There are many different ways that evolution can happen in a population including both artificial selection and natural selection. The evolutionary path a species takes can also differ depending on the environment and other biological factors. One of these paths of macroevolution is called divergent evolution. In divergent evolution, a single species interbreeds, either through natural means or artificially chosen traits and selective breeding, and then that species begins to branch off and become a different species. Over time as the two new different species continues to evolve, they become less and less similar. In other words, they have diverged. Divergent evolution is a type of macroevolution that creates more diversity in species in the biosphere. Catalysts Sometimes, divergent evolution occurs through chance happenings over time. Other cases of divergent evolution become necessary for survival in a changing environment. Some circumstances that can drive divergent evolution include natural disasters like volcanoes, weather phenomena, the spread of disease, or an overall climate change in an area in which the species lives. These changes make it necessary for the species to adapt and change in order to survive. Natural selection will select the trait that is more beneficial for the species survival. Adaptive Radiation The term adaptive radiation is also sometimes used interchangeably with divergent evolution. However, most science textbooks agree that adaptive radiation is focused more on the microevolution of a rapidly reproducing population. Adaptive radiation may lead to divergent evolution over time as the new species become less similar, or diverge, in different directions on the tree of life. While it is a very fast type of speciation, divergent evolution generally takes more time. Once a species has diverged via adaptive radiation or another microevolutionary process, divergent evolution will occur more quickly if there is some sort of physical barrier or a reproductive or biological difference that keeps the populations from interbreeding once again. Over time, significant differences and adaptations can add up and make it impossible for the populations to ever interbreed again. This may be caused by a change in chromosome number or as simple as incompatible reproduction cycles. An example of adaptive radiation that led to divergent evolution is Charles Darwins finches. Even though their overall appearances seemed to be similar and were clearly descendants of the same common ancestor, they did have different beak shapes and were no longer able to interbreed in nature. This lack of interbreeding and the different niches the finches had filled on the Galapagos Islands led the populations to become less and less similar over time. Forelimbs Perhaps an even more illustrative example of divergent evolution in the history of life on Earth is the forelimbs of mammals. Even though whales, cats, humans, and bats all are very different morphologically and in the niches they fill in their environments, the bones of the forelimbs of these different species are a great example of divergent evolution. Whales, cats, humans, and bats clearly cannot interbreed and are very different species, but the similar bone structure in the forelimbs indicate they once diverged from a common ancestor. Mammals are an example of divergent evolution because they became very dissimilar over a long period of time, yet still retain similar structures that indicate they are related somewhere on the tree of life. The diversity of species on Earth has increased over time, not counting the periods in the history of life where mass extinctions occurred. This is, in part, a direct result of adaptive radiation and also divergent evolution. Divergent evolution continues to work on the current species on Earth and leading to even more macroevolution and speciation.